Treating Female Sexual Offenders in a Group Counseling Session

Treating Female Sexual Offenders in a Group Counseling Session

Cedric B. Stewart

CNDV 5312

Lamar University

Treating Female Sexual Offenders in a Group Counseling Session

Researchers are beginning to re-examine how to treat female perpetrators of teacher sexual misconduct that historically was considered by many in society to be perpetrated exclusively by male pedophiliacs and hebephiliacs (Deering & Mellor, 2007). Although current interest in the subject matter has been fueled by several international high profile cases involving women as the offenders in an attempt to explore both the women’s pathology as perpetrators of these crimes and the accompanying relative light sentences that many have received after their cases have been adjudicated, there is also some interest as to the effectiveness of group counseling on these women in and out of the criminal justice system. Prior to the public sensationalism over women initiated crimes and in some cases outcries of judicial inequality, many people had considered that women were incapable of such crimes (Walters, 1975) or if at least they were capable, they lacked the male genitalia to effectively inflict any potential or substantial harm on the victim (Sarrel & Masters, 1982).

In sharp contrast, educators who are men that have been convicted of transgressing sexual boundaries often are subjected to more strenuous and punitive sentencing guidelines based on the beliefs that their alleged crimes were a direct violation of their fiduciary responsibilities and trust (Plaut, 2007). The concern over sexual boundaries has been at the very least an ethical consideration dating as far back as the Hippocratic Oath (Edelstein, 1943). Data from one of the few national studies that have been conducted to review any aspects of teacher sexual misconduct suggested that between 1981 and 2000, approximately 290,000 students have experienced some form of sexual abuse by a school employee (Shakeshaft, 2004).

As recently as 15 years ago, childhood sexual abuse was viewed primarily as a crime perpetrated by men that was committed against an individual under the age of majority. However, mounting evidence about another form of sexual abuse, perpetrated at the hands of females, has begun to challenge previously held assumptions (Kendall-Tackett & Simon, 1987; McCarty, 1986; Schultz & Jones, 1983; Wasserman & Kappel, 1985). Nonetheless, few theorists historically have addressed specifically women criminal roles, particularly related to sexual behaviors (Faller, 1987).

Perhaps in an attempt to underscore societal disdain for what some believed was once biologically a testosterone aggressive by-product, one early theorist in attempting to analyze possible underlying causes of female sexual misconduct described those that committed such offenses as genetic mutations that were reminiscent of prehistoric cave dwellers (Lombroso-Ferrero, 1972). This same researcher continued his work by advancing the idea that female offenders often possessed and demonstrated psychologically immature qualities such as revenge, cruelty, jealousy, and a lack of maternal instincts. In general, society may have also exacerbated the duality of roles between females and males in criminology by the disproportionate criminal sentences that generally are given in similar cases (Tjaden & Tjaden, 1986). A related hypothesis, based in the chivalry or paternalism theory, purports that females are often treated more leniently than their males counterparts in the male-dominated criminal justice system simply as a function of masculine desire to protect the weaker sex (Crews, 1991; Erez, 1992).

Unfortunately, too little research in this topic area has led to sparse theoretical frameworks upon which to base many studies. However, an increasing area of interest and research is in the field of feminist theory (Simpson, 1989). Although critics of feminist theory argue that it does not fully explain this phenomenon, often it has been used to advance efforts to aid in understanding and to help move toward a more gender equitable approach. Castro (1990) argues that political feminist uses the idea of patriarchy to convey that sexual abuse is about the exercise of power.

Elaborating on this theme, Young (1993) has suggested that female sexual assault is the result of females lashing out within a male dominated society. Another part of this controversial view is that if females are truly seeking to exercise power and control, qualities often relegated to male characteristic, will undoubtedly require a reconceptualization of both genders; particularly in terms of aggression and violence (Uggan & Blackstone, 2004). A further and perhaps more disturbing postulate of this argument is that if females in our society truly which to exercise greater control through the use of sexual exploitation, then there base to exercise this control has often been limited to children through such roles as educators (Uggan & Blackstone, 2004).

Background

Type of Group

The purpose of this proposed counseling will be to offer a therauptic group setting for female offenders who were previously employed in an educational setting and who have been convicted of committing a statutory sexual offense against under-age children. Although the literature on the prevalence of these offenders tends to be scant and outdated, I feel that the rates of offenses are much higher than reported or simply victims often are not believed. Unfortunately, most current programs that are designed to address this problem tend to treat these offenders in the same manner as male offenders and differences between the genders must be acknowledged (Gladding, 2012).

Although there are various factors that can affect the rates of recidivism within this group, the current rate of recidivism tends to about 3.8% within the U.S. (Nicholaichuk, Olver, Gu, & Wong, 2014). However, doubt still remains about the effectiveness of all sex offender treatment programs in general. For example, Ward, Mann, and Gannon (2007) suggest that newer treatment models are more effective than older forms of therapy. Nonetheless, researchers have generally noted that sex offender treatment programs have the capacity to reduce both sexual and general recidivism rates (Looman, Dickie, & Abracen, 2005). In particular, DeAngelis (1992) reported that psychotherapy and group counseling were most effective forms of therapy for treating sexual offenders.

Literature Review

''Current theories for females who abuse''. Female sexual abusers have largely been ignored in the current academic literature in favor of their male counterparts. This has resulted in a dearth in the literature producing a scant of studies with limited sample sizes and little attention paid to gender specific issues associated with sexual assault. What little salient information that is available tends to attempt to place female offenders into a typology for further examination.

For example, Faller (1987) has proposed that these offenders be placed into one of four distinct categories: (1) single parent, (2) polyincestuous, psychotic, (3) adolescent, and (4) non-custodial abuse. In his study, these offenders were later categorized into one of five subsequent case types with four of the respondents reported being abused in multiple contexts. In an earlier study, Luzianowicz (1972) reviewed five cases that included three mother and son involvements along with two aunt and nephew involvements. Goddard and Hiller (1993) in a review of eight cases noted that six were of the mother-daughter incestuous type and two were of the grandmother-grand-daughter incestuous form.

In their seminal study, Sarrel and Masters (1982) suggested classifying female sexual offenders by three types. In their typology, they noted that most female sexual offenders could be classified as: (1) teacher/lover, (2) predisposed, and (3) male-coerced. Ultimately, these researchers based the typologies on the underlying motivational factor for the offender to commit the offense and not the relationship between offender and victim.

Those classified as a teacher/lover offender tended to become involved with a prepubescent youth for whom they tended to relate to as a fellow peer. For this type of offender, the purpose of the sexual assault is ostensibly to educate the youth about sex. The second typology, the predisposed, is usually herself a victim of long term sexual abuse that was most likely initiated at a very early age. She in turns often initiates the sexual abuse herself and her victims tend to be her own biological children. With this offender, her motives for the assaults tend to not be so much related to sexual contact as it is to seeking emotional intimacy. Finally, the male coerced offender typically works in partnership with a male who also shares a common history of sexually abusing children. Women in this typology tend to exhibit a personality that seems to be co-dependent, is non-assertive, and often herself is the victim of sexual abuse. Her victims are usually children within her own family or in some cases children of other close family members.

''Underlying assumptions for female sexual abusers''. A review of the extant literature resulted in three general findings related to theoretical underpinnings for this type of behavior. The first theoretical assumption is based on the idea that female offenders commit these acts as a result of early family dysfunction. More commonly known as the family dysfunction model, proponents of this theory posit that sexual assault within the family structure is often conducted simply as a means of maintaining the existing equilibrium within the family’s structure. As such, these embedded practices then become viewed by each family member as having a vested interest in the continuation of the abuse (O’Hagan, 1989).

The second theoretical framework, the feminist perspective, tends to view sexual assault more from a sociological perspective and not necessarily from a familial perspective (Tower, 1999). As such, prescribers to this theory tend to view the resulting sexual abuse as a result of misplaced societal values. Under this view, the socially imposed lower class status rankings of women and children results in their dominated living in a male patriarchal society. Within this social power framework, sexual abuse is therefore seen as part of the range of ongoing violence perpetrated by men against women and children (O’Hagan, 1989).

The third and final theoretical perspective discussed in this paper was developed by Finkelhor (1984). Using a four-part model, Finkelhor (1984) notes that certain risk factors have the ability to impact the likelihood of a female sexually offending. These risk factors include: (a) the absence of a mother which increases the opportunity for father-daughter-incest; (b) residing in crowded condition which can result in a decrease in inhibitions; (c) stress associated with unemployment and familial strife; (d) emotional or physical deprivation of children which will often the lead them to seek affection from another adult source; sexual identity frustration; or (e) simply the innate need to exert power or influence over someone.

Treatment practices. According to the literature, the majority of the early and successful female sexual offender treatment programs were developed in Minnesota as part of their department of corrections (Schultz & Jones, 1983). The impetus for the early and innovative programs was the increasing number of women incarcerated for sexual type crimes. Early intervention components included intensive group psychotherapy, as well as couples and family therapy (Marshall, Fernandez, Hudson, & Ward, 1998). In addition to these treatment components, weekly support groups, ten-week sexual education groups, prison staff education training, and evaluation and case analysis were later added in order to increase the overall success rates of the program.

A second program called Genesis II was also initiated in Minnesota (Marshal et al., 1998). In this program, female sexual offenders who were convicted but not incarcerated were involved in a treatment program which lasted for approximately 15 months. Under this program guideline, sexual offenders were assigned to a comprehensive day treatment regime that required the offenders to attend school with their pre-school age children for six hours a day. Participants were also required to complete both individual and group therapy sessions that included such topics as parental education, independent living skills, sexuality development, and developmental day-care (Schultz & Jones, 1983).

In Garland, Texas, members from a merger of two criminal justices organizations created a local treatment program for female sexual offenders who have limited educational abilities or other special needs and this program has enjoyed some success (International Association of Chiefs of Police, 2007). In this program, the goal is to manage offender’s level of risk while reducing the offender’s propensity to manipulate the system through a series of efforts that includes a group counseling component. Unlike, traditional counseling sessions, the goal of the counseling sessions under this treatment program is not to get the offenders to feel better about themselves or to teach them how to better manage or cope with stress, instead it is designed to allow the offenders to confront their own cognitive distortions. Believing that this type of behavior is cognitive in nature, group therapy is the preferred method of treatment in which the offense cycle, victim empathy, construction of a relapse prevention plan, and how to appropriately deal with others is the focus of the treatment. The primary goal of this type of therapy is to encourage the offender to accept responsibility for their behaviors by acknowledging responsibility for their offenses, behaviors, and thoughts.

Specialization of Group

According to DeAngelis (1992) the best approach for dealing with sexual offenders still remains a group setting in which psychotherapy is employed. As such, this group will be classified as a psychoeducational group in which the goals of the group will be both anticipatory and developing in order to provide both education as well as emotional support (Gladding, 2012). In addition, Conyne (1996) suggest that the, “the overarching goal in psychoeducational group work is to prevent future development of debilitating dysfunctions while strengthening coping skills and self-esteem (p. 157). For sexual offenders, these tents will be key in helping to reduce the potential for recidivism.

In that this groups has often been identified as being comprised of members who often struggle both internally and with some form of isolation (Gladding, 2012), sophistry (Evans & Kane, 1996) is one of the techniques that will be utilized in order to address the group’s members way of thinking about their offending behaviors. This will be an important technique to introduce early in the group sessions in that many offenders will often attempt to use their well-honed manipulative behaviors in order to subjugate or completely control the focus and direction of the group (Gladding, 2012). Unfortunately, while most of the literature about the treatment of sexual offenders indicates that they have traditionally responded positively to this course of treatment, this same literature has also tended to be limited in scope to only an examination of male sexual offenders (Schwartz & Waldo, 1999).

Six Session Form and Consent

Because the successful treatment of sex offenders can be lengthy, the six session dates and corresponding six objectives are not intended to imply that this is the only recommended length of treatment. Instead, these six sessions are only provided as examples and in many cases the objectives listed as occurring per week could actually entail continued discussions lasting for prolonged periods of time.

Session 1 – Introduction (CSOM, n.d.).

Objective: Establish the group and lay the foundations for developing the group’s norms.

·        Begin with the therapist prepared to do the majority of the talking.

·        Discuss the intended structure of the group.

·        Encourage openness and respect.

·        Promote joining and linking.

Session 2 – Deviant Sexual Arousal Preferences (CSOM, n.d.).

Objective: Begin a conversation about deviant sexual arousals and preferences that led to their offending behaviors.

·        Discuss that not all sexual offending behavior is the result of sexual arousal (very important point with women clients).

·        For those that are sexually aroused, begin conversation about alternative treatments such as behavioral modifications or medications.

·        For those that offend but are not sexually aroused, discuss potential underlying causes.

·        Discuss the appropriate reactions that individuals should have to their sexual behaviors.

Session 3 – Distorted Attitudes (CSOM, n.d.).

Objective: In this session, the therapist will lead the group into beginning to identify within themselves their distorted justifications for their behaviors.

·        Allow the offenders to rationalize and to defend their cognitive distortions as to why they felt that their behaviors were appropriate.

·        Guide the feedback from the group and offer insights were appropriate.

·        Introduce role playing in which one of the group members assumes the role of a victim’s loved one who is confronting the offender.

·        Begin to move the offenders to a discussion related to the potential harm that they caused for their victims.

Session 4- Interpersonal Feelings (CSOM, n.d.).

Objective: The goal of this session is to address potential deficits in the offenders’ level of social skills in order to increase their socio-effective functioning so that they may begin to empathize better with both their actual and potential victims.

·        Begin to address the idea that a satisfying reciprocal sexual relationship between adults is the culmination of healthy social interactions and a healthy relationship between two consenting adults.

·        Discuss the role of appropriate management of anger and assertiveness.

·        Begin a conversation based on responsible and appropriate healthy sexual behaviors.

Session 5- Behavior Management (CSOM, n.d.).

Objective: The purpose of this section is to begin to get offenders to recognize the need to alter their behaviors related to both sexual and non-sexual matters.

·        One of the topics in this session is to begin to initiate conversations in which the offender verbalizes potential long-term consequences of their behaviors.

·        A second topic of discussion for this session is the introduction of relapse prevention strategies.

Session 6 – Female Sex Offender

Objective: The purpose of the sixth session (depending on the group, this section may be moved earlier in the schedule) will be to address issues that are specifically related to underlying reasons female sexually offend.

·        We will begin to address women’s roles in society.

·        Discuss the need for intimacy and its many forms.

·        Discuss the roles the nurturing bond that women are assumed to have and how does it relate to sexual assault.

Group Logistics

Duration of Group

According to Gladding (2012) the duration for groups that are using a psychotherapeutic approach ranges from several months to perhaps several years. In addition, group sizes tend to be fairly small with groups ranging in size from 2 to 3 members in the smallest group settings and up to 12 members in the largest group configurations. Unfortunately, researchers have been unable to empirically determine if there is an optimal amount of time for group length (Becker & Murphy, 1998). Instead, several researchers have suggested that the length of the group therapy sessions in addition to the group’s size should be dictated both by the individual needs of the offender along with their threat level to the community in which they exist (Becker & Murphy, 1998; Marshall et al., 1998; Ward, et al., 2007). Membership in the group will be limited to females who were formerly employed in the field of education, who have been convicted of a sexual offense, and whose victims had not reached the age of majority. In that this treatment is not part of a criminal justice program for incarcerated individuals, all group members must have cases that have been adjudicated completely in the criminal justice system and who did not receive prison time as a condition of their conviction.

Anticipated Changes

In that the majority of the women who engage in sexually offending behaviors are past victims of abuse themselves, I expect to see three major changes in the behaviors of the members of the group as we progress through the therapy sessions. First, the use of therapy should help these women to realize that their past relationships were probably both emotionally and physically unhealthy and that they lacked the requisite skills in order to form more positive healthy and productive relationships (Vinson, 1992). Next, many of these women by their actions have exhibited a significant lack of impulse control and poor judgment which are also common character traits among abused individuals (Fuhrmann & Washington, 1984). Therefore, a change that is expected as a result of successfully undergoing this therapy is that these women will begin to develop and exercise more appropriate coping skills in addition to an increase in appropriate choices made. Finally, these women, as part of therapy are expected to move beyond self-serving denial as a coping mechanism and begin to accept personal responsibilities for both their actions as well as the impact that their behaviors had on their victims (Emerson, 1988).

Potential Obstacles

According to Gladding (2012) a potential problem when working with this group is their overcoming their propensity for lack of trust as well as their high levels of anger and frustration. Moreover, Morgan (2004) has indicated that many have difficulty adjusting to societal norms and this is something that should be addressed within each group. Successful sex offender treatment programs tend to be more skill oriented, however, some group members have been resistant to learning the skills necessary to remain from offending (Ward, et al., 2007).

In order to reduce the likelihood of obstacles and increase the potential for success, perhaps many of the individuals as well as the group can be aided in achieving their goals through the use of psychodrama. The use of psychodrama has been previously shown to be effective in a variety of psychoeducational settings (Galdding, 2012) and in fact may be useful in getting the sexual offenders to address their common lack of empathy for their victims. For example, by using psychodrama, offenders may finally be able to address the underlying causes of their behaviors and emotions and practice new behaviors within a safe and structured environment.

'''Group Leadership, Theory, and Techniques'''

Theoretical Orientation

The theoretical orientation that I propose to use for this group is reality therapy. Originally developed by Glasser (1984), the goal of reality therapy is to ostensibly teach the individual that, “all behavior is generated within ourselves for the purpose of satisfying one or more basic needs” (p. 323). Being both cognitive and behavioral in nature, the primary focus of this therapeutic approach is to get members to take responsibility for their own actions; something this is fundamental in the treatment of sexual offenders. Furthermore, Wubbolding (2001) propose that there are two considerations that a therapist must ensure when attempting to use this framework: applying proper procedures using the WDEP framework and engineer the environment.

Strengths and Limitations of the Theory

Reality therapy emphasizes accountability as well as it requires action and thinking. On the group level, it requires them to make decisions and once made, to execute those decisions in a timely manner. On the individual level, it requires the prescriber to self-reflect and to decide what’s important and what changes they are willing to make in order to maintain what they most value. Reality therapy also works well with individuals, such as sexual offenders, whom society has tended to marginalize and in many ways simply have abandoned as being hopeless or unable to repair.

Yet like all therapies, reality therapy also has its limitations. Reality therapy requires the exchange of communications which initially, may be difficult especially with the sex offending population (Gladding, 2012). Moreover, the seemingly mechanical and straight forward nature of reality therapy may also cause some therapist to miss the subtleties and complexities of human emotions. Lastly, practitioners of reality therapy may have difficulty in having sexual offenders reconcile the abuse of their past in that reality therapy tends to not support the impact of prior experiences on present behaviors.

My Personal Leadership

Using Glasser’s (1965) traits of effective leadership skills, as the group therapist and based on the nature of the group’s members, I will be the only group leader. According to the characteristics required by Glasser (1965), I feel that I have many of the traits necessary to be an effective leader. Being responsible and aware of my own needs, I have the ability to empathize without being judgmental. I also possess the ability to be strong without being overbearing and I feel as though I have the capabilities needed to guide the group successfully through the phases associated with forming of groups. However, as a leader, I will have to work on my confrontational skills. While I do not necessarily view being completely confrontational and direct as a weakness, I do realize that this is one area that I will have to work on as a group leader who will be facilitating a group of female sexual offenders using reality therapy.

Evaluation of the Group

For this group, evaluation will be measured in terms of rate of recidivism. Due to the nature of the common theme, sexual offenders, group members will not be encouraged to associate with each other beyond the confines of the counseling session. In addition, although this therapy is expected to last for an extended period, members must eventually be able to function without the support of the group. Therefore, no individual therapy sessions will be engaged in between the therapist and the group members after the group counseling sessions have ended. For those members that feel that individual counseling is required after the columniation of the group sessions, I will facilitate the members seeking another qualified therapist.

References

Becker, J., & Murphy, W. (1998). What we know and don’t know about assessing and treating Sex offenders. Psychology, Public Policy and Law, 4, 116-137.

Castro, G. (1990). American feminism - a contemporary history (E. Loverde-Bagwell, Trans.). New York, NY: University Press.

Center for Sex Offender Management (COSM, n.d.). An overview of sex offender treatment for a non-clinical audience. Retrieved from http://www.csom.org/train/treatment/long/03/3_10.htm

Conyne, R. K. (1996). The association for specialist n group work training standards: Some considerations and suggestions for training. ''Journal for Specialist in Group Work, 21'', 155-162.

Crews, B. K. (1991). Sex differences in criminal sentencing: Chivalry or patriarchy. ''Justice Quarterly, 8'', 59-83.

DeAngelis, T. (1992, November). Best psychological treatment for many men: Group therapy. APA Monitor, 23, 31.

Deering, R., & Mellor, D. (2007). Female perpetrated child abuse: Definitional and categorisational analysis. Psychiatry, Psychology, and Law, 14, 218-226.

Edelstein, L. (1943). ''The Hippocratic oath: Supplements to the bulletin of the history of medicine''. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press.

Emerson, S. (1988). Female student counselors and child sex abuse: Theirs and their client’. ''Counselor Education and Supervision, 28'', 15-21.

Erez, E. (1992). Dangerous men, exit women: Gender and parole decision-making. Justice Quarterly, 9, 105-126.

Evans, T. D., & Kane, D. P. (1996). Sophistry: A promising group technique for the involuntary client. ''Journal for Specialist in Group Work, 21,'' 110-117.

Faller, K. C. (1987). Women who sexually abuse children. Violence and Victims, 2, 263-276.

Finkelhor, D. (1984). ''Child sexual abuse: New theory and research''. New York, NY: The Free Press.

Furhmann, B. S., & Washington, C. S. (1984). Substance abuse and group work: Tentative conclusions. Journal of Specialist in Group Work, 9, 62-63.

Gladding, S. T. (2012). ''Groups: A counseling specialty'' (6th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.

Glasser, W. (1965). ''Reality therapy: A new approach to psychiatry''. New York, NY: Harper and Row.

Goddard, C. R., & Hiller, P. C. (1993). Child sexual abuse: Assault in a violent context. Australian Journal of Social Issues, 28(1), 20 -33.

International Association of Chiefs of Police (2007). Sex offenders in the community: Enforcement and prevention strategies for law enforcement. Retrieved from http://www.theiacp.org/portals/0/pdfs/SexOffendersintheCommunity.pdf

Kendall-Tackett, K. A., & Simon, A. F. (1987). Perpetrators and their acts: Data from 365 adults molested as children. Child Abuse and Neglect, 11, 237-245.

Lombroso-Ferrero, G. (1972). Criminal man. Montclair, NJ: Patterson Smith.

Looman, J., Dickie, I., & Abrace, J. (2005). Responsivity issues in the treatment of sexual offenders. ''Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 6''(4), 330-353.

Luzianowicz, J. M.  (1972). Incestuous mothers. American Journal of Forensic Psychology, 7, 63-69.

Marshall, W. L., Fernandez, Y. M., Hudson, S. M., & Ward, T. (Eds.). (1998). Sourcebook of treatment for sexual offenders. New York, NY: Plenum.

McCarty, L. M. (1986). Mother-child incest: Characteristics of the offender. ''Child Welfare, 65'', 447-458.

Nicholaichuk, T. P., Olver, M. E., Gu, D., & Wong, S. C. P. (2014). Age, actuarial risk, and long-term recidivism in a national sample of sex offenders. ''Sexual Abuse: A Journal of Research & Treatment '', 26, 406 - 428. doi: 10.1177/1079063213492340.

O’Hagan, K. (1989). ''Working with child sexual abuse: A post-Cleveland guide to effective principles and practice.'' Des Moines, IA: Open University Press.

Plaut, S. M. (2007). Online ethics: Social contracts in the virtual community. ''Journal of Sex Education and Therapy, 22'', 84-90.

Sarrel, P. M., & Masters, W. H. (1982). Sexual molestation of men by women. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 11, 117-131.

Schultz, L. G., & Jones, P. (1983). Sexual abuse of children: Issues for social and health professionals. Child Welfare, 62, 99-108.

Schwartz, J. P., & Waldo, M. (1999). Therauptic factors in spouse-abuse group treatment. Journal for Specialist in Group Work, 24, 197-207.

Shakeshaft, C. (Ed.). (2004). Educator sexual misconduct: A synthesis of existing literature (U.S. Department of Education). Huntington, NY: Hofstra University.

Simpson, S. S. (1989). Feminist theory, crime, and justice. Criminology, 27, 605-632.

Tjaden, P. G., & Tjaden, C. (1986). Differential treatment of the female felon: Myth or reality. In M. Q. Warren (Ed.), Comparing female and male offenders (pp. 131-188). Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.

Uggan, C., & Blackstone, A. (2004). Sexual harassment as a gendered expression of power. American Sociological Review, 69, 64-92.

Vinson, M. L. (1995). Employing family therapy in group counseling with college students: Similarities and a technique employed by both. Journal for Specialist in Group Work, 20, 240-252.

Ward, T., Mann, R. E., & Gannon, T. A. (2007). The good lives model of offender rehabilitation: Clinical complications. ''Aggression and Violent Behaviors, 12'', 87-107.

Walters, D. R. (1975). ''Physical and sexual abuse of children: Causes and treatment. ''Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press.

Wasserman, J., & Kappel, S. (1985). Adolescent sex offenders in Vermont. Burlington, VT: Vermont Department of Health.

Wubbolding, R. E. (1987). A model for group activities related to teaching reality therapy. Journal of Reality Therapy, 6, 23-28.

Young, V. (1993). Women abusers - a feminist view. In M. Elliot (Ed.), Female sexual abuse of children: The ultimate taboo (pp. 100-104). London: Longman.

Appendix

Confused?

Need Answers?

Female Sexual Offenders Group Counseling Sessions Beginning

Free Services

No Questions Asked

Please Call: 281/444-4444